The Corsi Block-Tapping Test

The Corsi Block-Tapping Test (CBT) is a widely used neuropsychological tool designed to assess visuospatial skills and working memory capacity. The test has a sequence of blocks that a participant must tap in the same order as they were presented. Since its development, different variations of CBT have come up, making it a crucial method in evaluating various cognitive functions and applications in various research settings.

History

The Corsi block-tapping test was first described by Milner (1971) and later outlined by her PhD student, Corsi (1972), in his dissertation. The original CBT test consisted of 9 wooden cubes which were tapped with a stick in a sequence by the experimenter and the participant is expected to tap out the exact sequence) and only the experimenter could see the block numbers written on them.

Example set up of 3D cubes as arranged in the original Corsi block test with the numbers being seen only by the examiner (Arce & McMullen, 2021).

The inspiration behind the Corsi block-tapping test comes from the Hebb recurring digit task (Hebb, 1961). In the Hebb digit task, the subject will hear 24 sequences of digits, presented with one sequence at a time. So, if a subject can recall 5 digits in the correct order, then they will move on to the 6 digit condition and be presented with 24 more sequences of 6-digits each. In Corsi’s own words when describing the task, the Block-Tapping Task “is identical in design to the Hebb digits task, but the items are spatial not numerical” (Corsi, 1972). In the Hebb digit task, from the 24 sequences, there are 16 different arrangements using the numbers 1 to 9; the other 8 arrangements are repetitions repeated on every third trial (McKelvie, S. J., 1987).

Since its development, the CBT has undergone a number of adaptations and modifications. With the advancement of technology and increased use of computing devices, digital versions of CBT came into place, as well as an increase of popularity of administering the Corsi Block-Tapping test online. The standardization and digitalization of the test led its way into an array of neuropsychological batteries (Arce & McMullen, 2021).

Description of the Corsi Block-Tapping Test Online

A digital version of the Corsi block-tapping test consists of nine identical squares which are presented asymmetrically on a grid. The squares are unevenly spaced and spatially positioned on the screen, based on the spatial positioning in Corsi’s physical cube-based task.

The spatial layout of 2D squares of the Corsi Block-Tapping Task online as presented in Kessels et al. (2000). Measurements are in mm (Arce & McMullen, 2021).

Instead of being tapped, as in the physical version, some of the squares are ‘lit’ or ‘flashed’ in a particular sequence and the participant is required to retain in memory which squares flash and in what order. Upon being cued, the participant is expected to reproduce the same sequence pattern by clicking on the squares.

The Corsi block-tapping test online requires the participants to click on the squares and this may or may not be followed by feedback, if the response was correct or not.

In the video below, we show what that looks like in an online version of the Corsi Span task administered in Labvanced. For this demo, the participant is presented with 3-sequence spans and the 9 squares take on a random asymmetric array to determine their position, which varies per trial.

You can try out the Corsi Block-Tapping Test here by clicking on the Participate button under the study description or Import it to your account to edit it freely.

Forwards and Backwards Corsi Tasks

It is important to note that there are two conditions or modes of administrations for which the CBT can be carried out. Namely, they are the:

Forward Condition / Corsi-F

The participant has to show the sequence in the exact order it was presented. So, if squares 3-4-7 lit up, then their response is expected to be in that order.

Backward Condition / Corsi-B

The participant has to reproduce the sequence in the reverse order (i.e., start with the last square that lit up). For example, if squares 9-8-4-5 lit up, then the participant is expected to input their response as 5-4-8-9.

Example of stimuli, trial structure, timing and representation of the forwards (A) and backwards (B) conditions in a digital version of Corsi Block-Tapping Test; Formoso et al. (2018).

Depending on the version and parameters of the task, it is possible to see in the literature that a CBT will terminate immediately upon the participant failing to replicate the target array sequence; in some other versions, a participant is given two chances to guess the correct target sequence length. In order to proceed to the next level, ie. a longer target sequence, a participant must input one target sequence correctly (Özer, D., Özyürek, A., & Göksun, T., 2025).

For more information about variations of the Corsi Block-Tapping Test online see the section on variations.

Data Collected in the Corsi Block-Tapping Test

Several key metrics are recorded during the Corsi Block-Tapping Test including:

• Corsi Span: The maximum sequence length that a participant correctly reproduces.
• Span Limit (CB Span): The highest level where at least one sequence is reproduced correctly (range: 0 to 9).
• Accuracy Percentage: The proportion of correctly reproduced sequences across trials.
• Position Error: Occurs when participants select a block not highlighted in the original sequence.
• Order Error: Occurs when participants recall the correct block but in an incorrect serial position.
• Reaction Time: The time taken by a participant to begin responding after the sequence presentation.
• Eye Movements: Eye tracking metrics collected such as gaze patterns, fixation duration, fixation sequence, areas of interest, saccades, pupil dilation and more. For online versions, it is also possible to activate Labvanced’s peer-reviewed webcam eye tracking to collect gaze data.

In the image below, there is a preview of what data from a Corsi Block test online looks like when recorded in Labvanced. The first three columns indicate what square the participant clicked in order from the available squares. The Pink Square array column shows the numeric values of the available squares that were randomly presented on the grid. The reaction time column is the participant response in milliseconds. The score column is a tallied value of the correct responses and the yellow Square Array represents which squares and in what order they lit up / flashed.

Data recorded from a version of the Corsi Block-Tapping Test online in Labvanced.

Possible Confounds to Consider

• Age: Age has been identified as an important confounding factor to consider when administering the Corsi block tapping task and analyzing data. For example, a study by D’Aurizio et al. (2023) mentions that children's performance on the CBT increases with age, indicating that the maturation of functions associated with working memory contributes to this improvement. Additionally, Lin et al. (2021) reported in their study that elderly subjects have worse spans compared to younger subjects.
• Blocks and Baseboard Properties: Factors such as color of the blocks or their positioning on the board can be possible confounding variables that researchers should control. Variations in board dimensions, block size and shape can potentially interact with performance and impact participant performance, particularly as they relate to visual clutter and participant perspective (Arce & McMullen, 2021).
• Geometrical Complexity of the Sequence: CBT requires participants to remember and repeat sequences of blocks placed in different positions. The way these blocks are arranged can make the task easier or harder. To get accurate results, researchers need to control the complexity of the arrangement so that the test measures memory strategies rather than just the difficulty of the sequences (de Sardenberg Schmid & Hardiess, 2024).
• Motor skills: Research shows that motor skills and spatial memory are linked, and physical movement can affect cognitive performance. Since the tapping version of CBT test is less physically demanding than the walking version (described in detail below), better performance in tapping may be due to easier motor requirements rather than better memory. To measure spatial working memory accurately, researchers must control for motor demands in their study design (Röser et al., 2016).

Variations of the Corsi block-tapping test

Over time, researchers have developed several variations of the CBT test to explore different aspects of memory and cognition. Numerous variations have been implemented in terms of display characteristics such as the number, colour and size of the blocks, block placement, size and colour of the board. Variations have also been brought in test administration methods such as the block sequences, presentation rate, recall order, scoring technique (Vandierendonck et al., 2004). Below, we discuss the most common variations of the CBT test utilized in research.

Variations of the Computerized Corsi Block-Tapping Test

The computerized CBT involves a series of squares arranged in a specific pattern. The participants are required to observe a sequence of blocks that light up and then replicate the sequence by clicking on the blocks in the same order (Kessels et al., 2000).

Examples of variations of digital 2D Corsi Block-Tapping tests online (Arce & McMullen, 2021).

However, it is important to note that computerized versions have also been found to vary in details of their implementation (Gibeau, 2021; Berch, et al., 1998). For example:

• Square size and color: Variations in square size typically include dimensions such as 25 mm × 25 mm or 22 mm × 22 mm, depending on the study. Some studies have also included square size of the traditional version, i.e., 20 cm × 25 cm. As for colors, it includes blue, grey, white yellow and black that change colours when tapped.
• Square Position: When it comes to computerized versions, studies use different positions for the squares. Most studies utilize the same positions as the original Corsi test, keeping them fixed throughout the task, with only the highlighted sequence changing. However, in some cases, researchers randomly position the squares on the screen.
• Sequence: Some researchers use consistent sequences derived from established tests (e.g., Wechsler Memory Scale), while others create custom sequences.
• Square highlighting: Some studies changed the colours of the squares when highlighted, while there was another that showed an ‘X’ in the middle of the block when highlighted.
• Presentation Rate: The speed at which the squares flash can differ among studies. While some researchers present sequences at a standard rate of one block per second, others may vary this rate to one block every 1.5 or 3 seconds.
• Trial progression: Most studies began the task with a sequence length of two and a maximum sequence length of nine. However, some studies started with sequence length of one and there are studies that had maximum length of six, seven or eight.
• Permitted Errors: Some end after one wrong response and some after two.
• Recall Order: As mentioned earlier, variability in the recall order of the blocks also exists. Some tasks may require participants to recall the blocks in the exact order they were presented (forward recall), while others allow for backward recall, where participants must remember the sequence in reverse order.
• Scoring Techniques: The number of trials administered at each level and the criteria for discontinuation (e.g., how many incorrect attempts lead to ending the sequence) can differ.

In terms of performance, no significant difference has been found between the digital and physical versions of the Corsi task, however, more studies are still advised to be undertaken in order to compare 2D with 3D versions of the CBT (Arce & McMullen, 2021). All in all, the digitized version of the Corsi test allows for efficient data collection and analysis, providing detailed performance metrics that can be used for research (Schaefer et al., 2022).

Additional Variations of the Corsi Block-Tapping Test

• Physical Corsi Block Test (CBT): As mentioned previously, the Physical CBT is the first form of CBT that was made. All other variations that were developed are based on this. The physical CBT typically consists of nine distinct wooden blocks placed on a board. The blocks are numbered on one side so that only the examiner can see them. The examiner uses a wooden stick to tap out a sequence on the blocks. The participants observe this sequence and then attempt to reproduce it.
• The Walking Corsi Block Test (WalCT): It is a variation of the Corsi Block Test (CBT) that assesses route spatial memory in a larger, real-world environment. Unlike the static CBT, the WalCT requires participants to physically walk between blocks placed on a carpet. While both tests measure spatial memory, the CBT focuses on peripersonal space (the immediate area surrounding an individual, typically within arm's reach), whereas the WalCT focuses on navigational space (areas that require movement and navigation) (Arce & McMullen, 2021).
• Audio Corsi Tests: A variation of the CBT test that utilizes auditory stimuli instead of visual cues to assess spatial memory. In this variation, participants listen to sounds emitted from virtual auditory sources arranged around their heads. After listening to the sounds, participants are prompted to recall the sequence of sounds. They do this by pressing the buttons on a custom-made keyboard that represent the positions of the sounds in the order they were presented. For example, if a sound was heard from the left side, the participant would press the button that corresponds to that location (Setti et al., 2021).

Associated Cognitive Functions

The Corsi Block-Tapping Test provides insights into the underlying cognitive functions.

Here are the key processes:

• Visuospatial processing: Visuospatial skills involve managing visual and spatial information and also the localization of objects in space (Oscar-Berman et al., 2014; Castro-Alonso et al., 2019). In the CBT test, the participants need to comprehend how the blocks are positioned relative to each other, thus utilizing their visuospatial skills.
• Working Memory: Working memory is the small amount of information that can be held in mind and used to carry out different cognitive tasks (Cowan, 2013). The CBT test requires participants to hold and manipulate spatial information in real-time to reproduce the sequence of blocks.
• Spatial Navigation: It is the process of determining and maintaining a course from one spatial location to another (Parra-Barrero et al., 2023). The CBT evaluates the ability of the participants to understand and remember the arrangement of objects in space.
• Attention: Attention is the ability to focus one's attention on important environmental stimuli while ignoring irrelevant stimuli. It is being actively used in CBT tests to observe and recall the sequences correctly (Callahan & Terry, 2015).

Applications in Research

The Corsi Block-Tapping Test is widely used across various disciplines to provide insights to cognition and memory processes. Given below are some examples of how CBT test has been applied across several research domains:

• Clinical psychology: Since its development, the Corsi Block-Tapping test has been widely used in various clinical conditions such as ADHD (Abou Sleiman & Kechichian Khanji, 2021), Parkinson's disease (Liebermann-Jordanidis et al., 2022), Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) (Gerbasi et al., 2021) and more. For instance, a study by Iachini et al. (2021) utilized the CBT test as a measure of visuo-spatial working memory and its role in spatial tasks among participants with early Alzheimer's disease (AD). Findings showed that patients with AD significantly underperformed in the Corsi test, especially the backward version of it, implying how deficits in active visuo-spatial memory are an early indicator of AD.

• Neuropsychology: Orrego et al. (2024) aimed to determine the alterations in the components of working memory (WM) using the Corsi Block-Tapping test and the researchers further assessed how different brain lesions (specifically in the right or left hemisphere) impacted the performance of the various components of working memory. Findings showed that while patients did not show notable differences in WM performance based on the hemisphere affected, there was still a recognized impairment in self-reported WM. This suggests the need for neuropsychological evaluation and rehabilitation for WM in stroke patients, regardless of the affected brain region.

• Developmental Psychology: By using a computerized version of the CBT, the study aimed to assess how a single session of coordinative motor training (CMT) might influence the development of spatial abilities in healthy children. The findings however showed that a single session of CMT does not significantly improve spatial ability performances in healthy children suggesting how short-term interventions may not be sufficient to influence cognitive development in children (Morawietz et al., 2024).

• Sports Science: By incorporating cognitive assessments like the Corsi test, a recent study sought to determine how cognitive abilities, particularly working memory, influence agility performance (ability to rapidly change body direction, accelerate, or decelerate) in elite youth football players, thereby enhancing the understanding of the cognitive components that contribute to overall athletic performance. Results showed that how well players performed in agility tests is more about their cognitive skills rather than their motor abilities (Friebe et al., 2024).

• Human-Computer Interaction (HCI): The Corsi test has even made its way to the realm of HCI. A group of researchers wanted to determine to what extent virtual reality (VR) can be used to test memory skills and utilized the Corsi test for this purpose. The researchers wanted to find out if the VR method is better than traditional methods of Corsi test implementation. Participants using the VR-based Corsi test were found to have reduced physiological stress indicating a more comfortable testing environment. Overall, the study highlights the enhanced flexibility and accuracy when using VR technology in cognitive assessments (Szabó et al., 2024).

Conclusion

Even after so many years since its development, the Corsi Block-Tapping Test remains one of the most effective tools for studying visuospatial memory and working memory capacity. With its diverse applications in various fields, CBT test continues to play a pivotal role in understanding many key cognitive functions and abilities!

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